Critical Analysis of Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Critical Analysis of - Research Paper Example In addition, history has much borrowing to do from political science. Individuals’ understanding of history remains meaningless supposing the political bearings of occurrences and movements are sufficiently connected. For instance, there cannot be a complete understanding of the accounts of the 19th century in Europe devoid of bringing out the importance of the movements such as imperialism, socialism, individualism, and nationalism. This does not imply that political science and history have a similar inkling. There exist fundamental dissimilarities between political science and history. History denotes accounts of previous occurrences and movements that embrace revolution, warfare, military campaigns, and political, economic, religious, as well as, social upheavals. No aforementioned are essential for political science purposes. The major concern of a political science student would be studies on the progression of political institutions alongside supplementary actualities t hat influence openly or indirectly the state. As such, political science selects particulars out of history. Accordingly, even though, history and political science are different subjects, they cut-across each other on numerous points. In Praise of Difficult People: A Portrait of the Committed _Whistleblower Philip H. Jos, College of Charleston Mark E. Tompkins, University of South Carolina Steven W. Hays, University of South Carolina According to the authors of the mentioned investigation, opponents of large organizations consider principled personal dissent including whistleblowing to be significant for making sure responsibility in otherwise irresponsible bureaucracies. There is a broad commentary of whistleblowing being an expensive action for the whistleblower that many consider as additional proof of the necessity for enhanced legal safeguarding along with prodigious outside control over the organizations tangled. The conflict stimulated through dissent entails superior incent ives for the organizations, as well. Besides challenging numerous societal prohibitions, whistleblowing frequently pits loyalty to an individual’s customers or counterparts in opposition to the public loyalty and entails accusation, which the superiors of an individual or fellow colleagues have abused or neglected the trust of the public1. Consequently, whistleblowing denotes one of the mainly threatening sorts of organizational dissent, probable to result in considerable hostility alongside various kinds of organizational retribution. Overall, the understanding of whistleblowing remains anecdotal, even though restricting knowledge of individuals sounding these apprehensions, their inspiration, alongside their ensuing fate. The authors address numerous fundamental issues raised through the legislative deliberations and academic investigation concerning whistleblowing. Foremost is the concern of what happens to individuals who have opted to become whistleblowers. The concern f ocuses on whether the retaliations could be as unembellished as numerous persons have proposed. Subsequently, discerning what inspires the whistleblowers is necessary by centering on the influences that prompt such individuals into risking career sanctions, ostracism, alongside other retribution forms whilst most of their counterparts stay complacently silent. Idyllically, whistleblowing studies would integrate employee attitude measures along with conduct taken

The types of leadership styles that are at work and acess their Essay

The types of leadership styles that are at work and acess their effectiveness - Essay Example This kind of leadership has control on all spheres of society’s activity. Some experts argue that a number of chief executives in the business world practice this kind of leadership like feudal lords in medieval Europe (Legacee, 2012). These are the kind of leaders who maintain absolute control on entrepreneurial structure and do not agree on the democratization of thoughts and decision. This leadership is weak because its followers are rendered passive. Since it’s a little close to tyranny, it’s likely that this kind of leadership will inspire upheaval from constituents. Transformational leadership is a principle-based leadership with combined features of charismatic and participative type of leadership. This type of leadership inspires involvement of people in decision-making through teambuilding and consensus. It’s a leadership that respects democracy and motivates its human resources to advance their empowerment as stakeholder of development and change (Gumusluoglu. & Ilsev, 2009). This kind of leadership leads by example and implore on the necessity of vision and mission that guides an organization to its targeted goal. They are good in strategizing the framework for optimized organizational performance. Transactional leadership on the other hand deals about the bureaucratic aspect of managing an organization. Oppose to transformational leadership, this kind of leadership wanted the retention of status quo and rest more on completing its goals by rules and stringent rules (Hugo, Dimovski, & Ã…  kerlavaj, 2009). There is less employee-employer interaction in this leadership style hence, misunderstanding is very potent which could lead to disenfranchisement of members. Hugo, Z., Dimovski, V. & Ã…  kerlavaj, M. (2009). Transactional and transformational leadership impacts on organizational learning, Journal for East European Management Studies, Rainer Hampp Verlag, vol. 14(2), pages 145 -

Political Systems of Tribes

Political Systems of Tribes The importance of a tribe as a political system and its reluctance to subdue to the state efforts to erase it INTRODUCTION The tribe is an important political system that existed in the world mainly in the area of the Middle East. The Rwala and the Pathans are two examples of existing tribes that play a major role in the area in which they are located, proved by the fact that their tribal system coexist within the states boundary. The two tribes not only do they exit in one country but they maintain their existence within different countries. Due to their geographical location in which the two tribes live, the border zone, each country left them alone with their political system without interference from the central government. The Rwala have good relations within the countries they lived in its borders with the exception of Iraq, while the Pathans were free from state control until recently, when the US invaded Afghanistan and pressured Pakistan to take control of the tribal areas of Pakistan as they harbor Taliban. Why does the tribal political system still exist in the era of the Westphalian state sys tem? And why are the tribes resilient towards the state actions to take control of their area? These are the questions that this research paper is going to investigate. The research paper is divided into three parts. The first one is devoted to giving background information about the two tribes of Pathans and Rwala. The second part explores the reasons behind the strength of the tribes and the last part probes the reasons behind the reluctance of tribes towards the policies of the state to detribalize them. Background Information about the Rawala and the Pathans In order to understand the reasons behind the coexistence of the tribe as a political system with the current political system of the state, a basic definition for the tribe in needed. The tribe is: a notional form of human social organization based on a set of smaller groups having temporary or permanent political integration, and defined by traditions of common descent, language, culture, and ideology.[1] The members of a tribe share many characteristic with each other that make them similar and the most important one is common descent which denotes having relation to the family of the prophet, his companions or his tribe Quraish. For a tribe to legitimize its rule and survive it must trace its geology to the prophet. Any connection to the prophet or his surroundings serves as the basic instrument to justify the rule of the tribe. This can be both true and fictive, for instance many Berber tribes in Northern Africa changed their names from Berber to Arabic to point to their relatio ns to the prophet. While in the Ottomans were using such names as Ali and Hussein to justify their rule of Islamic empire to the extent that in any mosque in Turkey the name Hussein and Ali are engraved which make people to mistake the mosque for a Shiite one, which is not. Without lineage to the prophet, the tribe will lose ground and cannot legitimate its power within its population, therefore honor lies in lineage. The tribe exists because its members insure its existence by following a particular code that serves as the base of order and law. This code might change from one tribe to another but the basic idea is that the code insures that each member of the tribe is abiding by the customs of the tribe; this is done through the participation of individuals in decision-makings that are done through consensus. For instance, the tribal code within the Rwala is very different from the Islamic law to the extent that when a case involves a man and a women the tribal court tend to favor women, while among the Pathans the tribal code Pukhtunwali tend to be influenced by Islamic law to the extent that both the tribal law and Islamic law are two face of one coin. The Rwala are a tribe that is divided into five sections: the Murath, the Doghman, the Ga`adza`a, the Frejje and the Kwatzbe[2] that live in the border zone of four countries: Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Iraq. While the Pathans are a tribe that live in both Afghanistan and Pakistan, particularly in the border zone between the two countries, both the Pathans that live in Afghanistan and those that live in Pakistan do not recognizes the physical border and regard themselves as one united tribe. For example, whenever their fellow tribes are in trouble they immediately help them as it is shown in the movie, the Pathans Disappearing World, the Pakistani Pathans gathered to help their fellow Pathans in Afghanistan during the Soviet invasion, and one of the Pathans justified this act as helping their brother in time of need. This sense of brotherhood is not only present among Pathans but also among the Rwala, this help is a responsibility that each person in tribe is required to fulfill for his family members, this responsibility is not obligatory. For example, a person may refuse to help his uncle and be scot-free; however his reputation is going to be tarnished. The Political Importance of the Tribe The political importance of the tribe lies in the way of life of tribal people which values consensus, solidarity, reputation and revenge. There is no person with utmost authority in the tribe nor is power hereditary. Each tribe has a chief but this chief cannot oblige his tribe to do certain actions without going through consensus, as every person in the tribe has a right to express an opinion over matter that concerns the tribe. This need for consensus among tribal people makes it hard for any state to control the tribe or influence it, because when the tribes perceive its chief as being a government agent or accepting bribes from government his reputation will be unsavory and will the population will elect a new chief; and even when tribes are being outstripped of their heads, they still remain intact. Reputation is in an important aspect of tribal people because chiefs cannot coerce or compel his population; however the only political force available to him is to influence decisi on making. And in order for a chief to influence his population he needs four factors: good information, the ability to give good advice, a reputation for sound counsel and an audience to influence,[3] the sources of reputation for the Rwala come from Lineage, honor, raiding, generosity, bravery, hospitality. Besides, the fact of having a consensus in which every individuals opinion is valued which makes it hard to reach a unified view about any matter, to the extent that the tribe is being under the tyranny of the minority. The consensus involves major issues such as helping those who are at war or a very small matter such as a domestic scuffle between a father and his son. In the movie, the Jirga, the body responsible for making consensus among the Pathans, gather to make his opinion about the father that complained about his son not paying him enough. The result of the consensus was interesting because even though the son did not like the decision, in the end he subdue to the dec ision of the Jirga by kissing the white bribe of his father. The Islamic influence helps to explain the decision made by the Jurga as parents are giving special status in Islamic law. The absence of a central power in the tribal structure makes it hard to control the tribe because no individual has political power, no group has political power and no family has political power; power is restricted to the workings of public opinion. Even public opinion has no formal coercive power; co-operation can be withdrawn and that is all.[4] The tribal population does have loyalties to their tribe but not to the state, because the state is a resented system by the both Pathans and Rwala for one reason: it interferes in their lifestyle and tribal people do not like to be interfered with. Even when the tribal population exerts loyalty to a particular state it does so with the idea of paying tribute to the ruling family and not to the state itself. For instance, the Rwala members who are in the soil of Saudi Arabia pledge their loyalty outside the tribe to the family of Al Saud and not the state of Saudi Arabia.[5] Solidarity is another aspect that explains the strength of the tribe. Each member of the tribe is responsible for his family members and the tribe is responsible for its members. This solidarity does not only involve crucial issues but also mundane and quotidian ones like re-sewing a tents, as it is stated by William Lancaster: resewing a tent is a good example of how co-operation is achievedit would be a formidable task for one or two people, but it is always a co-operative effort.[6] This presence of solidarity does not mean that tribal people do not have problems or that they do not create troubles between themselves, problems and disagreements exist within tribes. However, the ways problems are resolved differ in a way that they are resolved but not to the extent of requiring interference outside the tribe. Because the tribe needs always to show strength and that its members are not divided, as it is pointed by William Lancaster The struggle between the two brothers for the smugg ling franchise was resolved, on the surface at least, by the need to present a united face towards intervention.[7] Revenge is an important characteristic of the tribe; this vindictiveness is allowed when a person from the tribe is killed. Therefore his family members have the duty to take his revenge not necessarily by killing the culprit but by killing any member of the family or the tribe of the culprit. Nobody can stop revenge or prevent the killing from taking place, unless the family of the bereaved accepted a financial retribution for the death of her family member.[8] The revenge process involves a cycle that is hard to stop without blood to the extent that the reason behind the feud might be forgotten. As it is pointed out by William Lancaster: the Mu`abhil have been involved in a single feud for fifteen twenty years. It started with a row over a camel or a sheep, no one can remember A Mu`abhil killed a Sabih. A settlement was arranged and the Mu`abhil paid about forty-five camels in compensation.[9] However, the problem did not completely end because the dead man left a son who was 4-ye ar old at the time of the compensation deal and when he grew up he demanded for his share that the Mu`abhil refused to pay due to the rising prices of camel. Revenge is best understood that none of the tribes members blood is cheap and that killing its population will involve a long fight before being it resolved. The tribes are reluctant to follow the bureaucracy of the state by going to civil courts to get their right as it will take time and probably the ruling will not be something they expected. Therefore, they prefer to take revenge instead. This is another reason which makes the state unattractive to the tribal population. The Reasons behind the Failure of the State in Subduing Tribes One of the reasons behind the reluctance of tribes to be urbanized and fall under the rule of the state lies in its distrust of interference. While the Rwala and Pathan both welcome new ideas they, however, dislike any change exerted by force. According to William Lancaster changed imposed from outside is another matter and they will resist it bitterly, not because its imposition does not allow them to react and partake in accordance with other factors.[10] The same thing goes for the Pathans, the United States of America is influencing Pakistan to get hold of the areas where Pathans live. However, the Pathans are not willing to subdue because they do not like any change to be imposed on them from the outside.[11] The two tribes of Rwala and Pathans both live in very sensitive areas to the extent that countries do not try to impose state rule their areas and allow them have their tribal law, not because both Jordan and Pakistan (before the US-Afghan war) are not able to destroy them but because simply suppressing them is not worth it; it would just bring more troubles than benefits. Furthermore, both tribes have relations with the states they live in. For instance, the Rwala maintain good relations with Saudi Arabia through marriage relations to the family of Al Saud while in Syria they are representatives in the parliament, therefore serving the interest of their tribe. Regarding the Pathans, the current present of Afghanistan Hamid Karazai is Pathan from the Durrani section. The economic autonomy of the tribal people is also one of the reasons that give a state a hard time when dealing with tribes. Especially as the means used by tribes are not illegal. For instance, the livelihood of many Rwala Population lies on smuggling which works well for the tribe as it is situated in a border area. Although this smuggling is much resented by states such as Jordan, it is tolerated for two reasons. First, the state gives certain autonomy as long as they patrol the border. Second, even smuggling can be beneficial to countries such Iraq during the Gulf War where the embargo prevented its population from getting its basic needs such as tires, while Saudi Arabia gets fruits from Styria in return for cars. As it is discussed above revenge is an important aspect that defines a tribe, it is one of the most misunderstood terms about the tribes, because revenge does not necessitate the killing the person who committed the murder. But killing anybody from his family, tribe or country is sufficient to quench the need for revenge. When Americans bomb areas in Waziristan and Swat Valley and kill many people, the Pathans feel the need to take revenge for the killings of their family members by killing any American soldier that they come across, and this revenge cycle is hard to stop as long as any person dead requires a revenge, save in case the family accepts a financial retribution. Other options of detribalizing the tribes lies on either urbanizing them or make them kill each other but then the questions rise of whether it is worth it and who will patrol the border in case of the border zone between Jordan, Syria , Iraq and Saudi Arabia. The British tried to introduce education in the Pathan tribal areas but they failed and so did the Pakistani government which succeeded in just including Pakistani national anthems in schools. However, the Pathans were keen on not letting the central government make them dependent on their education and health system. The Pathans revere the Islamic law which is the cornerstone of Pukhtunwali and want to maintain their autonomy health by basing it on the prophet`s medicine practices through herb and Koran. Conclusion The tribe is a political system that has survived within the epoch of the nation -state. The social equality and the political importance that the tribe gives to its individual make the tribe a powerful entity that proved to be hard for states to erase. Tribal people are proud of their tribe due to their lineage to the prophet and cherish the qualities of solidarity, reputation, hospitality, and honor in addition to revenge. The failure of understanding the tribal traits makes it hard to suppress them let alone communicate with them. For instance, the reason why the Taliban refused to turn in Osama Bin Laden to the US is rooted in the fact that he was a guest, therefore turning him in is a transgression of one of the components of their Pukhtunwali: hospitality. And going further to suppressing them through military actions will just exacerbate matters as the American do not understand how revenge is dealt with, which would make any person with an American military uniform a revenge target. Bibiliography Lancaster, William. The Rwala Bedouin Today(Second Edition). Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1981. Summer, Andrew, Director. The Pathans Disappearing World. Akbar, Ahmed anthropologist, Discovery Channel, 1988. tribe. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, 2010. Web. 7 Apr. 2010 .

Epic of Beowulf - Christian Morals in Beowulf :: Epic Beowulf christbeo

Christian Morals in Beowulf Beowulf is an epic tale that has been changed over time to try and express a christian moral. While this transformation over time has added a new variable to the plot, it is still impossible to try and erase the original pagan plot completely. It has become evident that the original epic was pagan and had no mention of the biblical references or the christian morality that it contains now. However, it is also evident that the original story dealt with the concept of a higher being or beings. The overriding christian view has many facets and deals with them all as a new way of proposing christianity into the theme of the story. The reason that Grendel becomes outraged is that the bard in the mead hall is singing a song that has to do with creation. This shows Grendel's apparent disregard for God and he proceeds to go to the hall and capture men and eat them while they are asleep. As we progress into the story, we learn that Grendel carries the curse of Cain with him. "He bore the curse of the seed of Cain/ Whereby God punished the grievous guilt of Abel's murder." Cain was the son of Adam and Eve and was the one who murdered Abel, his brother, out of a jealous rage for God's favor to Abel. This shows us that Grendel had more than just a dislike for the men, the song was showing Grendel that his ancestor was looked upon as the bad person and was therefore the underlying concept for Grendel's rage. This was the constant reminder to Grendel of his evil past and thus his reasoning for his actions. We learn to see Grendel as a less than human being, but in actuality, he is a monster who has a degree of humanity in him and that is the reason that he is so hard for Beowulf to kill. He has the human emotion of pride which ultimately is the cause of his downfall. While this seems to be a major part of the story line, it can be removed and the story will only lose the background of Grendel's evil side. This could have been where the real story of Grendel originally was. As with many of the classic medieval stories there is a sense of a higher being and fate is a major factor in Beowulf.

Evaluation of my ICT Database, Spreadsheet and Newsletter

Health and Safety I followed the school rules, and didn’t bring any food/drink into any computer rooms that could be damaging the electrical appliances if any beverages split on it. I didn’t bring my bag or coat into the classroom to reduce chance of someone tripping over, and I made sure that all wires were safely under my desk so that no-one could trip over them. When it was sunny and I was sat facing a computer I made sure that the blinds were closed so that I didn’t get a headache. When I had a double lesson we had a 5minute break between the 2 periods. This was to reduce chances of getting a headache, poor circulation or even backache. I adjusted my chair’s height so that my eyes were at the same level as the screen to reduce eye strain. I watched out for any trailing cables from the mouse or headphones and I used wrist rests to prevent RSI. Security I made sure that I never told anyone my password, or that I didn’t write it down so that no one could alter my work in any way, or delete it. I had no internet access so no viruses could be downloaded. I saved my work regularly just in case of a power cut, or if I knocked the wires, or if some other thing happened. My work was regularly backed up, every night, and saved on an external hard-drive. I followed safe, healthy and secure working times at all times. I can load software and save work in folders without help. I can also print, and use the computer network without aid. Database Evaluation Fields Firstly, I have 13 fields in my database, but to improve I could add more ‘Yes/No’ fields such as: ‘free flight meal’, ‘room service’, etc. Also, the lengths of fields, in the table view, were not restricted. This leads to memory loss – which could be a vital aspect later on. To make improvements I made sure that I used a field restriction from 255 to 75. A good point of the fields in my database is that ‘Date/Time’ (departure, arrival) fields used a ‘NN/NN/NN’ format. (N meaning number) This saves the user from having to write out the date, this could also lead to human error. Data Entry I have many types of data entry, such as: ‘Currency’, ‘Text’, ‘Date/Time’, ‘Number’, ‘Yes/No’. I have used all the data entry types that I think fit this task. Validation I used a range check on my Number of People, Reference Number, etc. To make sure that only a certain number can be entered. Forms My colour scheme for my database is colourful, but not too bright. I don’t feel the need to improve my colour scheme as it’s very basic. The font I used is easier to read and is adequately sized. There are advantages in using a form, for example – you don’t need to scroll down to view all the table, this could prevent RSI, because they isn’t a need to scroll down/up. Sorts I sorted my holiday dates in order to make it easier to find holidays closer to the current date. Searches I did searches on holidays with cruises. By using a search, it was quicker and easier to find the holidays that catered for my specific holiday. The searches would be very useful to a working company as it would be much quicker to fin d a holiday to a certain specification. I also did advanced search to find specific words to do with my holiday. Reports My report was organised into the type of country, then the destination. The size of the fields allowed all, if not the majority, of information to be displayed and the information is set out quite simply. The report is much easier to read than in a table because you don’t have to scroll down or anything. However, some of the fields have being cut of the edge. I could do other reports based on the prices of holidays, etc. Spread sheet Evaluation Layout and Data The labels of my different fields are clear and easily understandable. The data I have included in realistic and I know this because I used a travel website as a guideline – so that it was easier for me to do mine. And I also went to a travel agency and they showed me they’re website and some of the features I could use in mine. The cell merging was used when starting how many in a group. I have used grids to separate each bit of the spread sheet, so people don’t get confused about where the information is supposed to be. I could have used extra labels such as the type of holiday each is or whether there are disabled facilities. Formulas In my spread sheet, there is automatic recalculation if data changes, as shown in my What If Investigations. This is helpful if there is a sudden change in hotel costs as it automatically recalculates the total cost. The calculations are also accurate and do not need checking. To improve, I could use other formulas such as a ‘count’ or use a ‘3d cell reference’. Realistic Data and Outcomes All my prices, including the cost of the hotel extras and the cost of the different travel options, were realistic. I know this because I used a number of websites to get ideas for the right price and averaged the cost. To make the data more realistic, I should use the same website to find out all the guide prices. General Advantages or Disadvantages Using a spread sheet saves time when searching for data. The prices of my holidays are easy to find and realistic. The graphs I used make the different data for the different holidays come together in one easy to find place. The information that needs to be found can be found quickly with no hassle. Future Developments There are other spreadsheets that could be useful to the company. There could be a spread sheet that shows the different costs of different airline companies or train companies to find out the cheapest way to get to your destination. I could also add in other sheets to the spreadsheet I have already, like a sheet displaying the discounts available of each holiday or a sheet showing the cost of a holiday to each destination for one adult, two adults, three adults etc. Newsletter Evaluation Good Points I agree with some of the points given, but I disagree with others. I agree that the use of my variety of fonts and use of techniques such as centred, underlining, bold – which added empathy to my information. I have displayed the prices in an appropriate manner, with techniques such as bold, underlining. I think the theme I used for my newsletter fits well with the Holiday theme because it’s not dark. My newsletter is more appealing to Adults, because of the cruise. Bad Points There are some bad points, or points that I think need improving about my newsletter. I could of used more auto shapes to add more depth to my newsletter, it looks plain. The pictures I added to my master page are a little too small, although they are set of in a good way. Also the writing size I have chosen is too small to read. The colours I have used do not over-whelm the reader, it’s very plain and easily read – despite the size of the font. Improvements To improve my newsletter I need to do the following:- I could change the colour of my existing tables so that they fit the colour scheme throughout my pages in my newsletter. I could make the font bigger so that the read wouldn’t have any trouble in reading the information I have put in my newsletter. I could increase the size of my master-page images so that they are easily viewed, since that is one of the main features of my newsletter. I could use different customized bullet points, since I haven’t added any bullet points in my newsletter. PowerPoint Evaluation Good Points I agree with some points made and, again, I disagree with some. I agree that the colour scheme I have used is appropriate to the target audience, it’s quite sophisticated. I have not used headers and footers – this would of being easier to give the powerpoint slides specific titles so the reader could easily identify the holiday they want to look at. My pictures are a adequate size, and the positioning is good. I used different fonts and techniques to make my powerpoint more interesting to the reader. Bad Points On the other hand, there are some bad points about my powerpoint:- I didn’t use coloured text, which would of made it more interesting. I haven’t used headers and footers (explained in good points.) Improvements To improve my powerpoint I could:- Put colour on my text, to make the readers more interested. I could put headers and footers so the reader knows straight away what type of holiday this is.

Feasibility study for creating a furniture business Essay

This feasibility study is unusual and hard to make,,,,,we have to submit it on Tuesday,,,,,, we need to have our conclusion and find information for it,,,,,,,,, 1.history 2.business objectives 3.current situation and problems,  Furniture is the mass noun for the movable objects intended to support various human activities such as seating and sleeping. Furniture is also used to hold objects at a convenient height for work (as horizontal surfaces above the ground), or to store things. Furniture can be a product of design and is considered a form of decorative art. In addition to furniture’s functional role, it can serve a symbolic or religious purpose. It can be made from many materials, including metal, plastic, and wood. Furniture can be made using a variety of woodworking joints which often reflect the local culture. Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 Neolithic period 1.2 Classical world 1.3 Early modern Europe 1.4 19th century 1.5 Early North American 1.6 Modernism 1.7 Ecodesign 1.8 Contemporary 1.9 Asian history 2 Types of furniture 3 Types of wood to make furniture 4 Standards for design, functionality and safety 5 See also 6 References 7 External links History[edit] Furniture has been a part of the human experience since the development of non-nomadic cultures. Evidence of furniture survives from the Neolithic Period and later in antiquity in the form of paintings, such as the wall  Murals discovered at Pompeii; sculpture, and examples have been excavated in Egypt and found in tombs in Ghiordes, in modern day Turkey. Neolithic period[edit] Skara Brae house Orkney Scotland evidence of home furnishings i.e. a dresser containing shelves. A range of unique stone furniture has been excavated in Skara Brae, a Neolithic village located in Orkney. The site dates from 3100–2500 BC and due to a shortage of wood in Orkney, the people of Skara Brae were forced to build with stone, a readily available material that could be worked easily and turned into items for use within the household. Each house shows a high degree of sophistication and was equipped with an extensive assortment of stone furniture, ranging from cupboards, dressers and beds to shelves, stone seats, and limpet tanks. The stone dresser was regarded as the most important as it symbolically faces the entrance in each house and is therefore the first item seen when entering, perhaps displaying symbolic objects, including decorative artwork such as several Neolithic Carved Stone Balls also found at the site. Classical world[edit] Ancient furniture has been excavated from the 8th-century BC Phrygian tumulus, the Midas Mound, in Gordion, Turkey. Pieces found here include tables and inlaid serving stands. There are also surviving works from the 9th-8th-century BC Assyrian palace of Nimrud. The earliest surviving carpet, the Pazyryk Carpet was discovered in a frozen tomb in Siberia and has been dated between the 6th and 3rd century BC. Recovered Ancient Egyptian furniture includes 3rd millennium BC beds discovered at Tarkhan as place for the deceased, a c. 2550 BC gilded bed and two chairs from the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, and many examples (boxes, beds, chairs) from c. 1550 to 1200 BC from Thebes. Ancient Greek furniture design beginning in the 2nd millennium BC, including beds and the klismos chair, is preserved not only by extant works, but by images on Greek vases. The 1738 and 1748 excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii revealed Roman furniture, preserved in the ashes of the 79 A.D. eruption of Vesuvius, to the eighteenth century. Early modern Europe[edit] Florentine cassone from the 15th century The furniture of the Middle Ages was usually heavy, oak, and ornamented with carved designs. Along with the other arts, the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth century marked a rebirth in design, often inspired by the Greco-Roman tradition. A similar explosion of design, and renaissance of culture in general, occurred in Northern Europe, starting in the fifteenth century. The seventeenth century, in both Southern and Northern Europe, was characterized by opulent, often gilded Baroque designs that frequently incorporated a profusion of vegetal and scrolling ornament. Starting in the eighteenth century, furniture designs began to develop more rapidly. Although there were some styles that belonged primarily to one nation, such as Palladianism in Great Britain or Louis Quinze in French furniture, others, such as the Rococo and Neoclassicism were perpetuated throughout Western Europe. 19th century[edit] The furniture maker by Ludwig Deutsch The nineteenth century is usually defined by concurrent revival styles, including Gothic, Neoclassicism, Rococo, and the EastHaven Movement. The design reforms of the late century introduced the Aesthetic movement and the Arts and Crafts movement. Art Nouveau was influenced by both of these movements. Early North American[edit] This design was in many ways rooted in necessity and emphasizes both form and materials. Early American chairs and tables are often constructed with turned spindles and chair backs often constructed with steaming to bend the wood. Wood choices tend to be deciduous hardwoods with a particular emphasis on the wood of edible or fruit bearing trees such as Cherry or Walnut. Modernism[edit] Red and Blue Chair (1917), designed by Gerrit Rietveld The first three-quarters of the twentieth century are often seen as the march towards Modernism. Art Deco, De Stijl, Bauhaus, Wiener Werkstà ¤tte, and Vienna Secession designers all worked to some degree within the Modernist idiom. Born from the Bauhaus and Art Deco/Streamline styles came the post WWII â€Å"Mid-Century Modern† style using materials developed during the war including lamenated plywood, plastics and fiberglass. Prime examples include  furniture designed by George Nelson Associates, Charles and Ray Eames, Paul McCobb, Florence Knoll, Harry Bertoia, Eero Saarinen, Harvey Probber, Vladamir Kagan and Danish modern designers including Finn Juhl and Arne Jacobsen. Postmodern design, intersecting the Pop art movement, gained steam in the 1960s and 70s, promoted in the 80s by groups such as the Italy-based Memphis movement. Transitional furniture is intended to fill a place between Traditional and Modern tastes. Stainless Steel Table with FSC Teca Wood – Brazil Ecodesign Ecodesign[edit] Great efforts from individuals, governments, and companies has led to the manufacturing of products with higher sustainability known as Ecodesign. This new line of furniture is based on environmentally friendly design. Its use and popularity are increasing each year.[citation needed] Contemporary[edit] One unique outgrowth of post-modern furniture design is Live edge, heralding a return to natural shapes and textures within the home.[1] Asian history[edit] Sendai-dansu for kimono, zelkova wood, note the elaborate ironwork, handles on side for transportation, and lockable compartment Asian furniture has a quite distinct history. The traditions out of India, China, Pakistan, Indonesia (Bali and Java) and Japan are some of the best known, but places such as Korea, Mongolia, and the countries of South East Asia have unique facets of their own. The use of uncarved wood and bamboo and the use of heavy lacquers are well known Chinese styles. It is worth noting that Chinese furniture varies dramatically from one dynasty to the next. Traditional Japanese furniture is well known for its minimalist style, extensive use of wood, high-quality craftsmanship and reliance on wood grain instead of painting or thick lacquer. Japanese chests are known as Tansu, known for elaborate decorative iron work, and are some of the most sought-after of Japanese antiques. The antiques available generally date back to the Tokugawa era and Meiji era. Types of furniture[edit] Main article: List of furniture types Types of wood to make furniture[edit] Main article: List of woods All different type of woods have unique signature marks, that can help in easy identification of the type. There are hardwoods and softwoods. Both are used in furniture manufacturing, and each have their own specific uses[2] Standards for design, functionality and safety[edit] Universal furniture test-rig for linaer tests, drop tests and swivel tests (Hegewald & Peschke) EN 527 Office furniture – Work tables and desks  EN 581 Outdoor furniture – Seating and tables for camping, domestic and contract use EN 1730 Furniture – Tables – Test methods for the determination of stability, strength and durability– withdrawn and superseded by BS EN 1730:2012. All testing methods used in European Standards are now to be found in a single document [3] EN 13150 Workbenches for laboratories – Safety requirements and test methods BS 4875 Furniture. Strength and stability of furniture. Methods for determination of stability of non-domestic storage furniture (British Standard) EN 1335 Office furniture – Office work chair EN 1728 Furniture – Seating – Test methods for the determination of strength and durability– updated in 2012: All testing methods used in European Standards are now to be found in a single document, Clarified and simplified test methods, Includes a static load test for headrests. ANSI/BIFMA X 5.1 Office Seating EN 1335 Office furniture – Office work chair DIN 4551 Office furniture; revolving office chair with adjustable back with or without arm rests, adjustable in height NEN 1812 Furniture standard from the Netherlands EN 747 Furniture – Bunk beds and high beds – Test methods for the determination of stability, strength and durability GB 28007-2011 Children’s furniture – General technical requirements for children’s furniture designed  and manufactured for children between 3 and 14 years old[4]